The acanthus is one of the most common plant forms to make foliage ornament and decoration. In architecture, an ornament may be carved into stone or wood to resemble leaves from the Mediterranean species of the Acanthus genus of plants, which have deeply cut leaves with some similarity to those of the thistle and poppy.
An acroterion is an architectural ornament placed on a flat pedestal called the acroter or plinth and mounted at the apex or corner of a pediment or tympanum of a building in the classical style. The acroterion may take a wide variety of forms, such as a statue, tripod, disc, urn, palmette, or some other sculpted feature. Acroteria are also found in Gothic architecture. They are sometimes incorporated into furniture designs.
An apron, in architecture, is a raised section of ornamental stonework below a window ledge, stone tablet, or monument. Aprons were used by Roman engineers to build Roman bridges. The main function of an apron was to surround the feet of the piers.
An astragal is a convex ornamental profile that separates two architectural components in classical architecture. The name is derived from the ancient Greek astragalos which means cervical vertebra. Astragals were used for columns as well as for the moldings of the entablature.
An avant-corps, a French term literally meaning "fore-body", is a part of a building, such as a porch or pavilion, that juts out from the corps de logis, often taller than other parts of the building. It is common in façades in French Baroque architecture.
An awning or overhang is a secondary covering attached to the exterior wall of a building. It is typically composed of canvas woven of acrylic, cotton or polyester yarn, or vinyl laminated to polyester fabric that is stretched tightly over a light structure of aluminium, iron or steel, possibly wood or transparent material.
Balconet or balconette is an architectural term to describe a false balcony, or railing at the outer plane of a window-opening reaching to the floor, and having, when the window is open, the appearance of a balcony.
A baluster is a vertical moulded shaft, square, or lathe-turned form found in stairways, parapets, and other architectural features. In furniture construction it is known as a spindle. Common materials used in its construction are wood, stone, and less frequently metal and ceramic. A group of balusters supporting a handrail, coping, or ornamental detail are known as a balustrade.
A bossage is an uncut stone that is laid in place in a building, projecting outward from the building. This uncut stone is either for an ornamental purpose, creating a play of shadow and light, or for a defensive purpose, making the wall less vulnerable to attacks.
In architecture the capital (from the Latin caput, or "head") or chapiter forms the topmost member of a column (or a pilaster). It mediates between the column and the load thrusting down upon it, broadening the area of the column's supporting surface. The capital, projecting on each side as it rises to support the abacus, joins the usually square abacus and the usually circular shaft of the column.
A cartouche (also cartouch) is an oval or oblong design with a slightly convex surface, typically edged with ornamental scrollwork. It is used to hold a painted or low-relief design. Since the early 16th century, the cartouche is a scrolling frame device, derived originally from Italian cartuccia. Such cartouches are characteristically stretched, pierced and scrolling.
In architecture, a corbel is a structural piece of stone, wood or metal jutting from a wall to carry a superincumbent weight, a type of bracket. A corbel is a solid piece of material in the wall, whereas a console is a piece applied to the structure.
In architecture, a cornice (from the Italian cornice meaning "ledge") is generally any horizontal decorative moulding that crowns a building or furniture element - the cornice over a door or window, for instance, or the cornice around the top edge of a pedestal or along the top of an interior wall.
Cresting, in architecture, is ornamentation attached to the ridge of a roof, cornice, coping or parapet, usually made of a metal such as iron or copper. Cresting is associated with Second Empire architecture, where such decoration stands out against the sharp lines of the mansard roof. It became popular in the late 19th century, with mass-produced sheet metal cresting patterns available by the 1890s.
A dentil is a small block used as a repeating ornament in the bedmould of a cornice. Dentils are found in ancient Greek and Roman architecture, and also in later styles such as Neoclassical, Federal, Georgian Revival, Greek Revival, Renaissance Revival, Second Empire, and Beaux-Arts architecture.
Egg-and-dart, also known as egg-and-tongue, egg and anchor, or egg and star, is an ornamental device adorning the fundamental quarter-round, convex ovolo profile of molding, consisting of alternating details on the face of the ovolotypically an egg-shaped object alternating with a V-shaped element (e.g., an arrow, anchor, or dart). The device is carved or otherwise fashioned into ovolos composed of wood, stone, plaster, or other materials.
An epigraph is an inscription or legend that serves mainly to characterize a building, distinguishing itself from the inscription itself in that it is usually shorter and it also announces the fate of the building.
A festoon, (originally a festal garland, Latin festum, feast) is a wreath or garland hanging from two points, and in architecture typically a carved ornament depicting conventional arrangement of flowers, foliage or fruit bound together and suspended by ribbons. The motif is sometimes known as a swag when depicting fabric or linen.
A finial or hip knob is an element marking the top or end of some object, often formed to be a decorative feature. In architecture, it is a small decorative device, employed to emphasize the apex of a dome, spire, tower, roof, gable, or any of various distinctive ornaments at the top, end, or corner of a building or structure.
The Green Man, and very occasionally the Green Woman, is a legendary being primarily interpreted as a symbol of rebirth, representing the cycle of new growth that occurs every spring. The Green Man is most commonly depicted in a sculpture or other representation of a face that is made of or completely surrounded by leaves. The Green Man motif has many variations. Branches or vines may sprout from the mouth, nostrils, or other parts of the face, and these shoots may bear flowers or fruit. Found in many cultures from many ages around the world, the Green Man is often related to natural vegetation deities. Often used as decorative architectural ornaments, Green Men are frequently found in carvings on both secular and ecclesiastical buildings.
A gutta (literally means "drops") is a small water-repelling, cone-shaped projection used near the top of the architrave of the Doric order in classical architecture. It is thought that the guttae were a skeuomorphic representation of the pegs used in the construction of the wooden structures that preceded the familiar Greek architecture in stone. However, they have some functionality, as water drips over the edges, away from the edge of the building.
A keystone is a wedge-shaped stone at the apex of a masonry arch or typically a round-shaped one at the apex of a vault. In both cases it is the final piece placed during construction and locks all the stones into position, allowing the arch or vault to bear weight. In arches and vaults, keystones are often enlarged beyond the structural requirements and decorated. A variant in domes and crowning vaults is a lantern.
A loggia is a covered exterior corridor or porch that is part of the ground floor or can be elevated on another level. The roof is supported by columns or arches and the outer side is open to the elements.
In architecture, a mascaron ornament is a face, usually human, sometimes frightening or chimeric whose alleged function was originally to frighten away evil spirits so that they would not enter the building. The concept was subsequently adapted to become a purely decorative element. The most recent architectural styles to extensively employ mascarons were Beaux Arts and Art Nouveau.
A medallion is a carved relief in the shape of an oval or circle, used as an ornament on a building or on a monument. Medallions were mainly used in the 18th and 19th centuries as decoration on buildings. They are made of stone, wood, ceramics or metal.
A niche is a recess in the thickness of a wall. By installing a niche, the wall surface will be deeper than the rest of the wall over a certain height and width. A niche is often rectangular in shape, sometimes a niche is closed at the top with an arch, such as the round-arched friezes in a pilaster strip decoration. Niches often have a special function such as an apse or choir niche that houses an altar, or a tomb.
An oriel window is a form of bay window which protrudes from the main wall of a building but does not reach to the ground. Supported by corbels, brackets, or similar cantilevers, an oriel window is most commonly found projecting from an upper floor but is also sometimes used on the ground floor.
The palmette is a motif in decorative art which, in its most characteristic expression, resembles the fan-shaped leaves of a palm tree. It has a far-reaching history, originating in ancient Egypt with a subsequent development through the art of most of Eurasia, often in forms that bear relatively little resemblance to the original. In ancient Greek and Roman uses it is also known as the anthemion. It is found in most artistic media, but especially as an architectural ornament, whether carved or painted, and painted on ceramics.
A pediment is an architectural element found particularly in Classical, Neoclassical and Baroque architecture, and its derivatives, consisting of a gable, usually of a triangular shape, placed above the horizontal structure of the lintel, or entablature, if supported by columns. The tympanum, the triangular area within the pediment, is often decorated with relief sculpture. A pediment is sometimes the top element of a portico. For symmetric designs, it provides a center point and is often used to add grandness to entrances.
In classical architecture, a pilaster is an architectural element used to give the appearance of a supporting column and to articulate an extent of wall, with only an ornamental function. It consists of a flat surface raised from the main wall surface, usually treated as though it were a column, with a capital at the top, plinth (base) at the bottom, and the various other column elements.
A protome is a type of adornment that takes the form of the head and upper torso of either a human or an animal. Protomes were often used to decorate ancient Greek architecture, sculpture, and pottery. Protomes were also used in Persian monuments.
A putto is a figure in a work of art depicted as a chubby male child, usually naked and sometimes winged. Originally limited to profane passions in symbolism, the putto came to represent the sacred cherub, and in Baroque art the putto came to represent the omnipresence of God.
Quoins are masonry blocks at the corner of a wall. Some are structural, providing strength for a wall made with inferior stone or rubble, while others merely add aesthetic detail to a corner.
A rosette is a round, stylized flower design. The rosette derives from the natural shape of the botanical rosette, formed by leaves radiating out from the stem of a plant and visible even after the flowers have withered. The rosette design is used extensively in sculptural objects from antiquity, appearing in Mesopotamia, and in funeral steles' decoration in Ancient Greece. The rosette was another important symbol of Ishtar which had originally belonged to Inanna along with the Star of Ishtar. It was adopted later in Romaneseque and Renaissance architecture, and also common in the art of Central Asia, spreading as far as India where it is used as a decorative motif in Greco-Buddhist art.
A spandrel is a roughly triangular space, usually found in pairs, between the top of an arch and a rectangular frame; between the tops of two adjacent arches or one of the four spaces between a circle within a square. They are frequently filled with decorative elements.
A spire is a tall, slender, pointed structure on top of a roof or tower, especially at the summit of church steeples. A spire may have a square, circular, or polygonal plan, with a roughly conical or pyramidal shape. Spires are typically built of stonework or brickwork, or else of timber structure with metal cladding, ceramic tiling, shingles, or slates on the exterior.
In Classical architecture a term or terminal figure is a human head and bust that continues as a square tapering pillar-like form. In the architecture and the painted architectural decoration of the European Renaissance and the succeeding Classical styles, term figures are quite common. Often they represent minor deities associated with fields and vineyards and the edges of woodland, Pan and fauns and Bacchantes especially, and they may be draped with garlands of fruit and flowers.
Triglyph is an architectural term for the vertically channeled tablets of the Doric frieze in classical architecture, so called because of the angular channels in them. The rectangular recessed spaces between the triglyphs on a Doric frieze are called metopes. The raised spaces between the channels themselves (within a triglyph) are called femur in Latin or meros in Greek. In the strict tradition of classical architecture, a set of guttae, the six triangular "pegs" below, always go with a triglyph above (and vice versa), and the pair of features are only found in entablatures of buildings using the Doric order. The absence of the pair effectively converts a building from being in the Doric order to being in the Tuscan order.
In architecture, a turret is a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle. Turrets were used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall in the days of military fortification. As their military use faded, turrets were used for decorative purposes.
A tympanum (from Greek and Latin words meaning "drum") is the semi-circular or triangular decorative wall surface over an entrance, door or window, which is bounded by a lintel and an arch. It often contains pedimental sculpture or other imagery or ornaments. Many architectural styles include this element.
A volute is a spiral, scroll-like ornament that forms the basis of the Ionic order, found in the capital of the Ionic column. It was later incorporated into Corinthian order and Composite column capitals. The word derives from the Latin voluta ("scroll").
Berlin is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Berlin straddles the banks of the Spree, which flows into the Havel (a tributary of the Elbe) in the western borough of Spandau. First documented in the 13th century and at the crossing of two important historic trade routes. erlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1417-1701), the Kingdom of Prussia (1701-1918), the German Empire (1871-1918), the Weimar Republic (1919-1933), and the Third Reich (1933-1945). Berlin in the 1920s was the third-largest municipality in the world. After World War II and its subsequent occupation by the victorious countries, the city was divided; West Berlin became a de facto exclave of West Germany, surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961-1989) and East German territory. East Berlin was declared the capital of East Germany, while Bonn became the West German capital. Following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all of Germany.
Nikšić is the second largest city in Montenegro, located in the west of the country, in the center of the spacious Nikšić field at the foot of Trebjesa Hill. In classical antiquity, the area of Nikšić was the site of the settlement of the Illyrian tribe of the Endirudini and was known in sources of the time as Anderba or Enderon. Although the Nikšić area has seen human settlements since antiquity, most of the modern Nikšić is a planned city. Very little remains of the Ottoman architectural heritage, despite the long presence of the Ottoman Empire in the area. The city layout visible today still follows the 1883 urban plan commissioned by King Nicholas and designed by Croatian architect Josip Slade.
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. Since the 17th century, Paris has been one of Europe`s major centers of finance, diplomacy, commerce, fashion, science, and arts. Paris is located in northern central France, in a north-bending arc of the river Seine whose crest includes two islands, the Île Saint-Louis and the larger Île de la Cité, which form the oldest part of the city.
Trieste is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital city, and largest city, of the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia, one of two autonomous regions which are not subdivided into provinces. Trieste belonged to the Habsburg monarchy from 1382 until 1918. In the 19th century, the monarchy was one of the Great Powers of Europe and Trieste was its most important seaport. Trieste, a deep-water port, is a maritime gateway for northern Italy, Germany, Austria, and Central Europe. It is considered the end point of the maritime Silk Road, with its connections to the Suez Canal and Turkey. The city lies at the intersection of Latin, Slavic, and Germanic cultures where Central Europe meets the Mediterranean Sea, and is home to diverse ethnic groups and religious communities.
Vienna is the national capital, largest city, and one of nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's most populous city, and its cultural, economic, and political center. Vienna's ancestral roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city. It is well known for having played a pivotal role as a leading European music center, from the age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic center of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque palaces and gardens, and the late-19th-century Ringstraße lined with grand buildings, monuments and parks.
Alexander II (29 April 1818 - 13 March 1881) was Emperor of Russia, King of Congress Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from 2 March 1855 until his assassination. Alexander's most significant reform as emperor was emancipation of Russia's serfs in 1861, for which he is known as Alexander the Liberator. The tsar was responsible for other reforms, including reorganizing the judicial system, setting up elected local judges, abolishing corporal punishment, promoting local self-government through the zemstvo system, imposing universal military service, ending some privileges of the nobility, and promoting university education. After an assassination attempt in 1866, Alexander adopted a somewhat more reactionary stance until his death.
Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, handicraft, and warfare who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of various cities across Greece, particularly the city of Athens, from which she most likely received her name. The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is dedicated to her. Her major symbols include owls, olive trees, snakes, and the Gorgoneion. In art, she is generally depicted wearing a helmet and holding a spear.
The griffin, griffon, or gryphon is a legendary creature with the body, tail, and back legs of a lion; the head and wings of an eagle; and sometimes an eagle's talons as its front feet. Because the lion was traditionally considered the king of the beasts, and the eagle the king of the birds, by the Middle Ages, the griffin was thought to be an especially powerful and majestic creature. Since classical antiquity, griffins were known for guarding treasures and priceless possessions.
In ancient Greek religion, Hera is the goddess of marriage, women, and family, and the protector of women in childbirth. In Greek mythology, she is the queen of the twelve Olympians and Mount Olympus, sister and wife of Zeus, and daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. One of her defining characteristics in myth is her jealous and vengeful nature in dealing with any who offend her, especially Zeus' numerous adulterous lovers and illegitimate offspring.
Zeus is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion, who rules as king of the gods of Mount Olympus. His name is cognate with the first element of his Roman equivalent Jupiter. His mythology and powers are similar, though not identical, to those of Indo-European deities such as Jupiter, Perkűnas, Perun, Indra, and Dyaus. Zeus is the child of Cronus and Rhea, the youngest of his siblings to be born, though sometimes reckoned the eldest as the others required disgorging from Cronus's stomach. In most traditions, he is married to Hera.
The First Balkan War lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 and involved actions of the Balkan League (the Kingdoms of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro) against the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan states' combined armies overcame the initially numerically inferior (significantly superior by the end of the conflict) and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success. The war was a comprehensive and unmitigated disaster for the Ottomans, who lost 83% of their European territories and 69% of their European population. As a result of the war, the League captured and partitioned almost all of the Ottoman Empire's remaining territories in Europe.
The First World War began on July 28, 1914, and lasted until November 11, 1918. It was a global war and lasted exactly 4 years, 3 months, and 2 weeks. Most of the fighting was in continental Europe. Soldiers from many countries took part, and it changed the colonial empires of the European powers. Before World War II began in 1939, World War I was called the Great War, or the World War. Other names are the Imperialist War and the Four Years' War. There were 135 countries that took part in the First World War, and nearly 10 million people died while fighting. Before the war, European countries had formed alliances to protect themselves. However, that made them divide themselves into two groups. When Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated on June 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war on it. Russia then declared war on Austria-Hungary, which set off a chain of events in which members from both groups of countries declared war on each other.
In art, a Madonna is a representation of Mary, either alone or with her child Jesus. These images are central icons for both the Catholic and Orthodox churches. The word is from the Italian ma donna 'my lady'. The Madonna and Child type are very prevalent in Christian iconography, divided into many traditional subtypes, especially in Eastern Orthodox iconography, often known after the location of a notable icon of the type. The earliest depictions of Mary date to Early Christian art of the 2nd to 3rd centuries, found in the Catacombs of Rome.
The Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire was the tenth in a series of Russo-Turkish wars. An important part of the aggravation and resolution of the Eastern Question in 1875-1878. The reason for the war was the Uprising in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1875), the April Uprising in Bulgaria (1876) and the Serbo-Turkish War (1876). Participants are the Ottoman Empire against Russia, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro. The war was perceived and called Liberation, as it led to the liberation of some Bulgarians from Ottoman rule and the creation of the Third Bulgarian State. The attitude towards it is similar in Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, which are gaining full independence.
The Second Balkan War, also called the Inter-Allied War, was a conflict that broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, on 16 June 1913. Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked, entering Bulgaria. With Bulgaria also having previously engaged in territorial disputes with Romania and the bulk of Bulgarian forces engaged in the south, the prospect of an easy victory incited Romanian intervention against Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire also took advantage of the situation to regain some lost territories from the previous war. When Romanian troops approached the capital Sofia, Bulgaria asked for an armistice, resulting in the Treaty of Bucharest, in which Bulgaria had to cede portions of its First Balkan War gains to Serbia, Greece and Romania. In the Treaty of Constantinople, it lost Adrianople to the Ottomans.
The Second World War was a global war that involved fighting in most of the world. Most countries fought from 1939 to 1945, but some started fighting in 1937. Most of the world's countries, including all of the great powers, fought as part of two military alliances: the Allies and the Axis Powers. It involved more countries, cost more money, involved more people, and killed more people than any other war in history. Between 50 to 85 million people died, most of whom were civilians. The war included massacres, a genocide called the Holocaust, strategic bombing, starvation, disease, and the only use of nuclear weapons against civilians in history.
Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (18081873) was the first President of the French Republic and the last monarch of France. Made president by popular vote in 1848, Napoleon III ascended to the throne on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of his uncle, Napoleon I's, coronation. He ruled as Emperor of the French until September 1870, when he was captured in the Franco-Prussian War.
Rome is the capital city of Italy. It is also the capital and largest city in the region of Lazio, and the geographical region of Latium and is located on the Tiber River. When the Roman Empire was new, Rome was called the Eternal City because it was already very old. Rome is well known for being the home of the Catholic Church, including its leader, the Pope. He lives in the Vatican City, which is an enclave in the north-west part of Rome.
A sphinx is a mythical creature with the head of a human, the body of a lion, and the wings of an eagle. In Greek tradition, the sphinx is a treacherous and merciless being with the head of a woman, the haunches of a lion, and the wings of a bird. According to Greek myth, she challenges those who encounter her to answer a riddle and kills and eats them when they fail to do so. This deadly version of a sphinx appears in the myth and drama of Oedipus. In Egyptian mythology, in contrast, the sphinx is typically depicted as a man (an androsphinx) and is seen as a benevolent representation of strength and ferocity, usually of a pharaoh. Unlike Greek or Levantine/Mesopotamian ones, Egyptian sphinxes were not winged.
Cesare Augusto Corradini (Rome, 1860 - Bari, 1932) was an Italian architect. Of Roman origin, he carried out his activity mainly in the Apulian capital. In Bari, he designed the Ingami-Scalvini Palace (1924), the Fiera del Levante complex (1928-1930), the former Fiat headquarters (1928, together with the engineer Francesco De Giglio) now home to the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures of the University of Bari Aldo Moro created paintings and decorations in Palazzo Fizzarotti and drew up the first project for the Casa del Fascio in Bari, which was not realized. In Cetinje, Montenegro, he designed various works for King Nicholas I, among which the majestic Government Palace stands out.
In Greek mythology, Chloris was a nymph/goddess who was associated with spring, flowers, and new growth, believed to have dwelt in the Elysian Fields. Chloris was abducted by Zephyrus, the god of the west wind (which, as Ovid himself points out, was a parallel to the story of his brother Boreas and Orithyia), who transformed her into a deity known as Flora after they were married. Together, they have a son, named Karpos. She was also thought to have been responsible for the transformations of Adonis, Attis, Crocus, Hyacinthus, and Narcissus into flowers. In Ovid's Fasti V, she was partially responsible for the conception of Ares, who was born as revenge for Athena's birth. Hera came to her for rest, and upon discovering that Chloris could help her, insisted on it and swore not to tell Zeus. Using a flower, Chloris made Hera pregnant with Ares. Later, she was given a place in Rome for her involvement in Ares' birth.
Alexandre Bigot (5 November 1862 - 27 April 1927) was a French ceramicist. He was primarily a ceramics manufacturer, producing the designs of many artists and architects of the French-Belgian Art Nouveau movement, including Jules Lavirotte, Hector Guimard, Louis Majorelle, Henri Sauvage, Henry van de Velde, Auguste Perret, Andre Arfvidson, Anatole de Baudot and more. Bigot was a physics and chemistry instructor who became interested in ceramics in 1889 after viewing Chinese porcelain at the Exposition Universelle in Paris. With his knowledge of chemistry, Bigot was able to create glazes with a large variety of colors and finishes. Bigot's firm was based at Rue des Petites Ecuries, Paris and he also created a ceramics factory in Mer in 1889 which employed as many as 150 people. Siegfried Bing, a German art dealer in Paris, displayed works by Bigot, among others, and was responsible for introducing the Art Nouveau style. Bigot's Parisian firm closed in 1914 due to a decline in the popularity of Art Nouveau.
Paul Gaudet (1873 - 1931) was a French architect. Paul is the son of the architect Julien Gaudet. He attended school at the École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts in Paris and graduated in 1904. He started working in his father's workshop and then moved to J. Paulin's workshop. He completed his first project in 1904 in Tangier, where he designed a building for the embassy of France. From 1902 he lived in "Villa Suzanne" in Cormeilles-en-Parisis.
Auguste Perret (Ixelles, Belgium, February 12, 1874 - February 25, 1954) was a French architect. He specialized in reinforced concrete. Since 2005, his design of Le Havre has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Auguste Perret, like his brother Gustave Perret, was exposed to building construction at an early age through his father's company. While studying at the Paris École des Beaux-Arts, Auguste learned the classical principles of proportion and composition from his tutor Julien Guadet. From 1940, Perret himself taught at the École des Beaux-Arts. He won the Royal Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1948, and the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects in 1952.
Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš (7 October 1841 - 1 March 1921) was the ruler of Montenegro from 1860 to 1918. He was the prince from 1860 to 1910. He was the country's only king, which was from 1910 to 1918. After Austria-Hungary collapsed in 1918, Montenegro joined the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
Milena Petrović-Njegoš (4 May 1847 - 16 March 1923), maiden name Vukotić, was the only Queen consort of Montenegro as the wife of Nicholas I between August 28, 1910 and November 26, 1918. She was regent of Montenegro during the absence of her spouse in 1869 and in 1883. She also served as titular regent for the titular king-in-exile Michael between 1922 and 1923.
Janko Vukotić (February 18, 1866, Cevo - February 4, 1927, Belgrade) - Montenegrin military leader, army general, honorary governor, participant in the Balkan Wars and the First World War. He held the posts of serdar (1907), division commander of the Montenegrin army (1914), chairman of the government and minister of war (1905, 1913), chief of staff of the Supreme Command of the Kingdom of Montenegro (1913), adjutant general of King Nikola, general of the army (1926), member of the Military Council and adjutant of King Alexander I Karadjordjevic in the armed forces of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In the First Balkan War, Vukotić commanded the Eastern Detachment, and in the Second Balkan War, he already headed a division. At the beginning of the First World War, he was the head of the Montenegrin High Command, commander of the Herzegovinian detachment, and the Sandžak Army. From January 17, 1916, he again held the post of chief of the Supreme Command; after the surrender of Montenegro, he was captured. In 1919 he continued to serve in the Yugoslav army, and since 1926 he has been an army general.
Mitar Martinović (September 8, 1870, Bajica, Cetinje - February 11, 1954, Belgrade) was a Montenegrin and Yugoslav military leader, general of the Yugoslav Army, and Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Principality of Montenegro. Martinovich graduated from the Cadet School in Milan and the Engineering and Artillery Military Academy in Turin. He was the head of the military court of the princely court, and later the prime minister, minister of war, and minister of foreign affairs of Montenegro. He commanded the Primorsky detachment during the siege of Shkoder during the First Balkan War. During the First World War, Martinović was the commander of the Drinsky and Herzegovinian detachments. Then a delegate accredited to the Russian High Command, and during the defense of Kotor - commander of the Lovcen detachment. In 1918, he betrayed King Nicholas I. In the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, he received the rank of general in 1919. Served as assistant commander of the field army. Retired in 1921. He was awarded the Milos Obilic Gold Medal and other awards. Author of the work: Contribution to military elders for the development of military spirit and discipline, Cetinje, 1900.
Prince Michael Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro (14 September 1908 - 24 March 1986) was the third son of Prince Mirko of Montenegro, Grand Voivode of Grahovo and Zeta (1879-1918), and Natalija Konstantinović, a cousin of Aleksandar Obrenović of Serbia. He was a pretender to the throne of Montenegro, holding the title Grand Duke of Grahovo and Zeta, in succession to his father. King Nicholas I of Montenegro was Michael's grandfather. Michael had recognized and acknowledged the Unification of Montenegro with Serbia, renouncing the throne. In the Second World War, he was held prisoner by the Nazis after refusing to take up the throne of the Axis forces' re-established Montenegrin puppet state. During the period of Yugoslav socialism, he was an active member of the Serb diaspora revolutionary organization and a diplomatic worker against the socialist government led by Marshal Tito.
Neustrelitz is a town in the Mecklenburgische Seenplatte district in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is situated on the shore of the Zierker See in the Mecklenburg Lake District. From 1738 until 1918 it was the capital of the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. From 1994 until 2011 it was the capital of the district of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The village of Strelitz was first mentioned in 1278. It grew to a small town in the following centuries. In the 17th century, Strelitz was a part of the duchy of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, which ceased to exist after the death of the last duke in 1695. Afterwards, the new Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was established (1701). This small duchy contained the present-day district and an exclave around Ratzeburg, which is today situated in Schleswig-Holstein.
George Adolf Frederik August Victor Ernst (July 22, 1848, Neustrelitz - June 11, 1914, Berlin) was Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz from 1904 to 1914. He was the son of Grand Duke Frederick William and Augusta of Cambridge, granddaughter of George III. Adolf Frederik took part in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870/1871 and was present on behalf of his father at the imperial coronation of Wilhelm I in Versailles in 1871. At the death of his father on May 30, 1904, he took over the government. Thanks to Frederik Willem's good financial policy, he was able to double the number of civil servants, introduce pension law, and stimulate the economy and education. Unlike his reactionary-conservative predecessors, Adolf Frederik was a supporter of the parliamentary system. On March 4, 1907, he, like the Grand Duke of the neighboring state Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Frederick Francis IV, announced a constitutional revision that would better reflect the liberal spirit of the times. Previous attempts at this had been trained by the knighthood. He also tried to settle the feud with Prussia that had arisen under his father's rule.
Princess Elisabeth of Anhalt (September 7, 1857 - July 20, 1933) was the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz from 1904 to 1914 as the spouse of Adolf Friedrich V, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was born Princess Elisabeth Marie Frederica Amelia Agnes in Wörlitz, the third child of Friedrich I, Duke of Anhalt, and Princess Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg. Her nickname in the family was "Elly". On April 17, 1877, Elisabeth became the Hereditary Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz when she married the then Hereditary Grand Duke, Adolf Friedrich, in Dessau. Following the death of her father-in-law on May 30, 1904, she became The Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz following her husband's ascension to the throne. After her husband died in 1914, she was titled Grand Duchess Elisabeth of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, since her mother-in-law was still alive. Only after she died in 1916 that Elisabeth officially become The Dowager Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
Kaiser Wilhelm II of Prussia and Germany (27 January 1859 - 4 June 1941) was the last German Emperor and the last King of Prussia. Ruling from 1888 to 1918, he went to live in the Netherlands and abdicated as King and Emperor. This was the end of the Hohenzollern dynasty. He died in the Netherlands at Huis Doorn, and he is buried there because he was ordered not to be buried in Nazi Germany. He died on June 4, 1941. He was involved in the Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901 fighting against the Qing Dynasty Empire. In July 1914 he promised to support Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria against Serbia. This led to World War 1. He fled to the Netherlands in 1918 after Germany surrendered in World War 1 after losing many battles. Germany lost its Colonies and became the Weimar Republic.
Bar is Montenegro's main port city on the Adriatic Sea. The old town of Bar is located further inland. Bar has been part of Montenegro since 1878, when the Congress of Berlin assigned the city, which until then was in Turkish hands, to that country. Montenegro thus acquired important access to the sea, but was not allowed to station a fleet there, neither one's own nor a stranger's. Previously, Bar was Venetian for a long time. The city has long been known by its Italian name Antivari. The Albanian name of the city is also derived from this: Tivar. The Italian Antivari and the Latin Antibarium mean opposite Bari, and the city is therefore on the opposite side of the Italian Bari.
Victor Emmanuel III (11 November 1869 - 28 December 1947), born Vittorio Emanuele Ferdinando Maria Gennaro di Savoia, was King of Italy from 29 July 1900 until his abdication on 9 May 1946. A member of the House of Savoy, he also reigned as Emperor of Ethiopia (1936-1941) and King of the Albanians (1939-1943). During his reign of nearly 46 years, which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I, the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two world wars. His reign also encompassed the birth, rise, and fall of the Fascist regime in Italy.
The coat of arms of Montenegro is in the form of a golden-crowned two-headed eagle, raising his wings in flight, with a scepter in the right and a globus cruciger in the left talon, on red. On the chest of the eagle lays a shield with a golden lion passant. The lion is on a green field with a blue background.
Danilo I Petrović-Njegoš (25 May 1826 - 13 August 1860) was the ruling Prince of Montenegro from 1851 to 1860. The beginning of his reign marked the transition of Montenegro from an archaic form of government (Prince-Bishopric) into a secular Principality. He became involved in a war with the Ottoman Empire in 1852, the Porte claiming jurisdiction in Montenegro, and the boundaries between the two countries were not defined until 1858. Danilo, with the help of his elder brother, Voivode Mirko, defeated the Ottomans at Ostrog in 1853 and in the Battle of Grahovac in 1858. The town of Danilovgrad is named after him.
Njeguši is a settlement in the capital of Cetinje in Montenegro. According to the 2003 census, there were 17 inhabitants (according to the 1991 census, there were 23 inhabitants). The village is located on the slopes of the Lovćen mountain, in Njeguško polje, and is part of the national park of the same name. Njeguši is known as the birthplace of the Petrović dynasty, which ruled Montenegro from 1696 to 1918. The village and its surroundings are known for Njeguš cheese and Njeguš prosciutto.
Mirko Petrović-Njegoš (19 August 1820 - 1 August 1867) was a Montenegrin military commander, politician, and poet, belonging to the House of Petrović-Njegoš. He was given the title of Veliki Vojvodina (Grand Duke) of Grahovo and is thus also known as Vojvoda Mirko (Duke Mirko). He was the father of Nikola, the future ruler of Montenegro. Mirko was born on 19 August 1820, in Njeguši, the son of Stanko Petrović-Njegoš and wife Krstinja Vrbica. He was the older brother of Prince Danilo I, while his uncle was Petar II Petrović-Njegoš. He is famous for winning the Battle of Grahovac on 1 May 1858, leading the Montenegrin army against the Ottomans. In 1862, after the Convention of Scutari, he was deported because he had fought against the Ottomans. His epic corpus Heroic Monument, published in the Montenegrin capital of Cetinje in 1864, glorifies Montenegro and Montenegrins and tells of the great victories over the Ottoman Empire. In February 1857, Vojvodina Mirko Petrović-Njegoš replaced his cousin Đorđije Petrović-Njegoš as the President of the Governing Senate of Montenegro and the Highlands, he served during the reign of his brother Prince Danilo I and later during the reign of his son prince Nicholas. He held the position of president until his death in August 1867.
Petar Vukotić (14 December 1826 - 30 January 1904/1907) was a Montenegrin voivode and senator who participated in the Montenegrin-Ottoman War (1852-53) and Montenegrin-Ottoman War (1876-78), notably at the great victory at Vučji Do (18 July 1876). Born in Ozrinići or Čevo, he was the son of Montenegrins serdar Stevan Perkov Vukotić and wife Stana Milić. With wife Jelena Vojvodić, born in the village of Viš, Danilovgrad, Montenegro, daughter of Tadija Vojvodić and wife Milica Pavićević, he had the sons Šale, Matan, and Šćepan, and daughter Milena. He was one of the greatest landowners in Montenegro and a close friend of Vojvoda Mirko Petrović-Njegoš with whom he had fought in the wars of the 1850s. The two friends decided to consolidate their alliance with the union of their children. In 1853, Milena, age only six, was betrothed to Mirko's only son, Nikola, age twelve. Nikola was the nephew and heir of the childless reigning prince of Montenegro Danilo I. Milena had twelve children. Of them was Elena, who married Victor Emmanuel III of Italy.
Ulcinj is a town on the southern coast of Montenegro and the capital of Ulcinj Municipality. As one of the oldest settlements on the Adriatic coast, it was founded in the 5th century BC. It was captured by the Romans in 163 BC from the Illyrians. With the division of the Roman Empire, it was a part of the Byzantine Empire and the Serbian Kingdom in the Middle Ages until the Republic of Venice captured it in 1405. It was known as a base for piracy. In 1571, Ulcinj was conquered by the Ottoman Empire with the aid of North African corsairs after the Battle of Lepanto. The town gradually became a Muslim-majority settlement. Under the Ottomans, numerous oriental-style hammams, mosques, and clock towers were built. Ulcinj remained a den of piracy until this was finally put to an end by Mehmed Pasha Bushati. In 1673, the self-proclaimed Jewish Messiah Sabbatai Zevi was exiled here from Istanbul. Ulcinj remained an Ottoman town for more than 300 years until it was ceded to the Principality of Montenegro in 1878. It is a former medieval Catholic bishopric and remains a Latin titular see.
Podgorica, known as 'under the hill', is the capital and largest city of Montenegro. The city is just north of Lake Skadar and close to coastal destinations on the Adriatic Sea. Historically, it was Podgorica's position at the confluence of the Ribnica and Morača rivers and at the meeting point of the fertile Zeta Plain and Bjelopavlići Valley that encouraged settlement. The surrounding landscape is predominantly mountainous terrain.
The Court Church is a Serbian Orthodox church located in the Ćipur neighborhood of Cetinje, Montenegro. The church is dedicated to the Birth of the Most Holy Mother of God and is located on the historical site of Ćipur in the historical core of Cetinje, the former capital of the Kingdom of Montenegro. It was built by King Nikola I of Montenegro in 1890, on the place where there used to be a monastery that Ivan Crnojević built in the 15th century dedicated to the Mother of God. The church was declared a cultural heritage monument in 1961, and in 2012 it became part of the History Museum of Montenegro. As a monumental unit, together with the archeological remains of the monastery complex of the Crnojević noble family, it is a World Heritage Site candidate. The remains of Ivan Crnojević, King Nikola, Queen Milena, and Montenegrin princesses Ksenija and Vjera are interred in the church.
Josip Slade-Šilović (Trogir, March 23, 1828 - Trogir, June 15, 1911) was a Croatian builder and architect. It is a big name in the Croatian architectural heritage of the second half of the 19th century. Josip Slade was born in Trogir in 1828. He was educated in Split and Padova, where he received his doctorate in philosophy and then completed his studies in construction and engineering. His education was taken care of by his benefactor, stepfather Juraj Šilović, so as a sign of gratitude, Josip added his own to the surname Slade. He was the mayor of Trogir from 1901 to 1905. The most significant of his architectural works are the theater building in Šibenik, the road across Zagora to Lećevica, the church at the city cemetery in Trogir, the big bridge to Čiovo, the drinking water station on Dobrić, the Puović house, the Moretti palace on Čiovo, numerous roads, paths and bridges in Boka Kotor and the Principality of Montenegro. He also participated in the renovation of some Renaissance palaces in his native Trogir. He died in Trogir in 1911.
